Tin and tin-zinc plated substrates including Cu3Sn and Cu6Sn5 to improve Ni-Zn cell performance

ABSTRACT

An improved Ni—Zn cell with a negative electrode substrate plated with tin or tin and zinc during manufacturing has a reduced gassing rate. The copper or brass substrate is electrolytic cleaned, activated, electroplated with a matte surface to a defined thickness range, pasted with zinc oxide electrochemically active material, and baked. The defined plating thickness range of 40-80 μIn maximizes formation of an intermetallic compound Cu 3 Sn that helps to suppress the copper diffusion from under plating layer to the surface and eliminates formation of an intermetallic compound Cu 6 Sn 5  during baking to provide adequate corrosion resistance during battery operation.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.13/069,879, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,182,946, filed Mar. 23, 2011, which is adivisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/868,337, filed Oct. 5, 2007,now U.S. Pat. No. 7,931,988, issued Apr. 26, 2011, which areincorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to rechargeable batteries and, moreparticularly to nickel zinc rechargeable battery cells. Even morespecifically, this invention pertains to composition and structure ofcurrent collectors for negative paste in zinc electrodes.

BACKGROUND

A cylindrical battery cell employs alternating electrode and electrolytelayers. Each electrode may include a current collector substrate and oneor more electrochemically active layers. Among the considerations forthe current collector design are the following: (a) high electricalconductivity; (b) resistance to corrosion by the electrolyte used; (c)resistance to electrochemical reactions so as not to be consumed tooquickly; (d) mechanical strength and flexibility allowing it withstandmanufacturing operations(e.g., pasting and rolling); (e) low overallcost, including material cost and manufacturing; and (f) a surfacestructure providing good physical contact, or “connectivity,” to theelectrochemically active layers (e.g., the material should not form apassivating film so as to prevent the good physical contact and shouldadhere well to the electrochemically active layers). It is not criticalthat any one or more of these features be met. For example, a currentcollector may be outstanding in one or more categories and yet besub-standard in others. Thus, a material having disadvantages in oneaspect may still be used if the disadvantages may be overcome by theoverall battery design. Common materials currently used for zincnegative electrode current collectors include copper and brass.

One way to evaluate cell performance and establish the relationshipbetween features of the current collector and cell performance is tomeasure the gassing rate of current collector strips under conditions.During battery operation, gases such as hydrogen may be evolved.Although some evolved hydrogen may be recombine with oxygen to producewater, the remaining hydrogen would build up in the cell and may causecell rupture or damage conductive pathways. It is desirable to designcell components that have low out-gassing rates.

SUMMARY

An improved Ni—Zn cell with a current collector substrate ismanufactured with tin or tin and zinc plating to achieve a reducedgassing rate. The copper or brass substrate electrolytic cleaned,activated with a matte surface, electroplated to a defined thicknessrange, pasted with a zinc oxide based electrochemically active materialand baked. The defined thickness range of 40-80 μIn eliminates formationof an intermetallic compound Cu₆Sn₅ during baking, improves platinglayer stability and provides adequate corrosion resistance duringbattery operation. The improved current collector provides highelectrical conductivity, resistance to corrosion and electrochemicalreactions, good mechanical strength and flexibility, and good interfaceto the electrochemically active layers.

In one aspect, the present invention pertains to a method to manufacturea zinc electrode substrate for a nickel zinc battery cell. The methodmay include providing a perforated strip of substrate material,degreasing the strip, electrolytic cleaning the strip, activating thestrip, and electroplating a layer of metal or alloy including tin ortin-zinc at a thickness of about 40-80 μIn. The substrate material maybe copper or brass. The metal electroplated may be tin or both tin andzinc, which may be about 75-100% weight tin and about 0-25% weight zinc.

The perforated strip may be degreased with denatured alcohol or otherorganic solvents for a period of time, which may be 5-15 minutes. Inbetween the degreasing operation and the electrolytic cleaningoperation, the perforated strip may be rinsed with DI water. Theelectrolytic cleaning operation comprises immersing the perforated stripin an alkaline soak solution and conducting a current through the strip.For example, the current may be 1-3 amps for a 15 inch perforated stripwhen the cleaning is conducted for 5-10 minutes. More or less currentmay be used to ensure the surface is pure, uniform, and smooth. Thealkaline soak solution may have a pH of 10-13 and may comprise of analkaline hydroxide, an alkaline carbonate, an alkaline phosphate, or acombination of two or all of these. The alkaline hydroxide may be sodiumhydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The alkaline carbonate may be sodiumcarbonate or potassium carbonate. The alkaline phosphate may be sodiumphosphate or potassium phosphate or may be substituted with sodiumacetate.

The perforated strip may be activated in an activation solution for aperiod of about 5-10 minutes. The activation operation produces a mattedsurface. The activation solution may be an acid. Particularly, theactivation solution may be sulfuric acid at an acid concentration of4-20%. Other strong acids may be substituted instead of the sulfuricacid. The activation solution may have a pH of less than 1-3. Before andafter the activation operation, the perforated strip substrate may berinsed with DI water to remove the chemicals from the previousoperation.

The perforated strip is electroplated to deposit 40-80 μIn of metal. Themetal may be tin or both tin and zinc. The electroplated layer on thesubstrate may be an alloy of tin with copper and optionally zinc. Thecurrent density may be 40-80 A/m² for a period of about 4-6 minutes. Incertain embodiments, current density may be 40-70, or about 60 A/m² forabout 4-6 minutes. The electroplating bath may include tin ion or zincion sources and a current carrier source. Preferably, the electroplatingbath also includes an oxidation retardant, an anti-treeing agent, and nobrightening agent. The tin ion source may be stannous sulfate (SnSO₄)and its concentration may be about 50-300 grams per liter. Other sourcesof tin ions may be used, e.g., stannous chloride (SnCl₂), stannousfluoborate (Sn(BF₄)₂) or stannous methanesulfonate (Sn(CH₃SO₃)₂). Thezinc ion source may be zinc chloride (ZnCl₂), zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄) orzinc pyrophosphate (Zn₂P₂O₇) at a concentration about 10-100 grams perliter. The current carrier source may be any acid that can providesufficient conductivity for the plating bath. For example, the currentcarrier source may be sulfuric acid, acetic acid, boric acid, sodiumsulfate, fluoboric acid, cresol sulfonic acid, methanesulfonic acid(CH₃SO₃H) or sulfamic acid at a concentration of about 50-250 grams perliter. The oxidation retardant serves to retard the oxidation ofstannous tin and may be cresolsulfonic or phenolsulfonic acids. Theconcentration may be about 50-100 grams per liter. The treeing effect isexcessive deposition forming dendrites and other irregular shapes.Treeing may reduce the life of a cell because it may create undesiredconductive pathways or cause non-uniform depletion of theelectrochemically active materials. Anti-treeing agents may be naphthol,dihydroxydiphenylsulfone, glue, gelatin, or cresol. The naphthol ordihydroxydiphenylsulfone may be used at a concentration of 0.5-10 gramsper liter. Glue, gelatin, or cresol may be used at a concentration of0.2-12 grams per liter. The plating bath may have a pH of 0.1-3.

An electrochemically active material, preferably a paste containing zincoxide, may be applied to the substrate. The substrate and the zinc oxidebased paste may then be baked by maintaining their temperature at about200-350° C. for a period of about 30 minutes to 2 hours. In certainembodiments, the baking may be accomplished by maintaining thetemperature at 260° C. for a period of about 45 minutes. For unbaked tinplated substrates, the room temperature storage for one month results incopper diffusion to substrate surface. The copper amount on substratesurface varies from 2 to 35% depending on plating thickness. Nointermetallic compounds are formed during room temperature storage. Thebaking promotes copper diffusion of the substrate material into theelectroplated layer to form copper/tin alloy with high copper contentand intermetallic compounds (Cu₃Sn and/or Cu₆Sn₅). When the substrate iselectroplated with a thick layer of tin (e.g., more than 200 μIn) andbaked at 200-350° C. for 30 minutes to 2 hours, the tin-copperintermetallic compounds are formed in the plating layer and cause thesurface to blister. The blistering leads to higher gassing rate and isdetrimental to cell performance. At a plated thickness of less than 20μIn, no intermetallic compound is formed in the plated layer. At aplated thickness of about 40-80 μIn, the plating layer includes mostlytin/copper alloy and a thin layer of (˜10-40%) of intermetallic compound(Cu₃Sn). At a plated thickness of more than 200 μIn, both compoundsCu₃Sn (˜5-15%) and Cu₆Sn₅ (˜85-95%) are formed and can be clearlyidentified from color or shape difference in a SEM photo.

Formation of Cu₃Sn is preferred at substrate/plating layer interfaceover Cu₆Sn₅ because intermetallic compound Cu₃Sn layer helps to suppressthe copper diffusion from under plating layer to the surface duringbaking and Cu₆Sn₅ compounds are irregular, brittle, and less conductivethan Cu₃Sn. The density of Cu₆Sn₅ is small and thus has large volumewhich generates compression stress. The Cu₆Sn₅ may crack duringsubsequent manufacturing operations, creating a weak point for corrosionand reduce conductivity.

In another aspect, the present invention pertains to a nickel zincbattery cell having the improved substrate current collector. The cellincludes a negative electrode layer, a positive electrode layer withnickel, and a separator layer. The negative electrode layer includes acurrent collector and a zinc oxide based electrochemically active layer.The current collector may be a substrate of copper or brass withoutformation of detrimental intermetallic compound (i.e. Cu₆Sn₅) afterbaking. The plating layer may have a thickness of about 40-80 μIn toprovide maximum protection from substrate and paste corrosion andexcellent plating layer stability. In one embodiment, the thickness maybe about 60 μIn. In certain embodiments, the intermetallic compound mayonly comprise Cu₃Sn.

In another aspect, the present invention pertains to a negativeelectrode structure. The structure includes a current collector and azinc oxide based electrochemically active layer. The current collectormay be a copper or brass substrate having a tin or tin/zinc plating witha thickness of about 40-80 μIn. In certain embodiments, the currentcollector may have a structure including tin plating at a thickness ofabout 60 μIn. In other embodiments, the current collector may have astructure including tin/zinc plating at a thickness of about 55 μIn.

These and other features and advantages of the present invention will bedescribed in more detail below with reference to the associateddrawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is an exploded diagram of a nickel zinc battery cell inaccordance with the present invention.

FIG. 1B is a diagrammatic cross-sectional view of an assembled nickelzinc battery cell in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2 presents a diagram of a cap and vent mechanism according to oneembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 illustrates the various layers in the negativeelectrode-separator-positive electrode sandwich structure in accordancewith an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 4A-4C illustrates a cross section of plated and baked substrates ofdifferent electroplated thicknesses under SEM magnification.

FIG. 5 is a process flow diagram of a method embodiment in accordancewith the present invention.

FIG. 6 is plot of gassing rate measured for substrates electroplated atvarious calculated thicknesses.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Introduction

In the following detailed description of the present invention, numerousspecific embodiments are set forth in order to provide a thoroughunderstanding of the invention. However, as will be apparent to thoseskilled in the art, the present invention may be practiced without thesespecific details or by using alternate elements or processes, employingthe spirit and scope of the invention. In other instances well-knownprocesses, procedures and components have not been described in detailso as not to unnecessarily obscure aspects of the present invention.

The present invention pertains to methods of manufacturing a nickel zinccell, particularly the process of manufacturing the negative electrode.A negative electrode may have a metallic copper or brass based substratecurrent collector. During the manufacturing process, the substrate iselectrolytic cleaned and electroplated with tin or both tin and zinc.Then a zinc oxide based electrochemically active material is pasted ontothe plated substrate. The substrate and paste are baked to formtin/copper alloys and intermetallic compounds. The process favorsformation of tin/copper alloys and certain intermetallic compounds thatprotects the substrate material from corrosion forces and is amenable tofurther manufacturing operations. The process disfavors formation ofcertain intermetallic compounds that affects the electrode performancenegatively. The disfavored intermetallic compounds may be irregular,brittle, and/or less conductive than other compounds. As result, thenickel zinc battery made using the inventive process has a reducedgassing rate and exhibits better capacity for both low rate and highrate applications.

In order to frame the context of this invention, the general batterycell structure will now be described.

General Cell Structure

FIGS. 1A and 1B are graphical representations of the main components ofa cylindrical power cell according to an embodiment of the invention,with FIG. 1A showing an exploded view of the cell. Alternating electrodeand electrolyte layers are provided in a cylindrical assembly 101 (alsocalled a “jellyroll”). The cylindrical assembly or jellyroll 101 ispositioned inside a can 113 or other containment vessel. A negativecollector disk 103 and a positive collector disk 105 are attached toopposite ends of cylindrical assembly 101. The negative and positivecollector disks function as internal terminals, with the negativecollector disk electrically connected to the negative electrode and thepositive collector disk electrically connected to the positiveelectrode. A cap 109 and the can 113 serve as external terminals. In thedepicted embodiment, negative collector disk 103 includes a tab 107 forconnecting the negative collector disk 103 to cap 109. Positivecollector disk 105 is welded or otherwise electrically connected to can113. In other embodiments, the negative collector disk connects to thecan and the positive collector disk connects to the cap.

The negative and positive collector disks 103 and 105 are shown withperforations, which may be employed to facilitate bonding to thejellyroll and/or passage of electrolyte from one portion of a cell toanother. In other embodiments, the disks may employ slots (radial orperipheral), grooves, or other structures to facilitate bonding and/orelectrolyte distribution.

A flexible gasket 111 rests on a circumferential bead 115 provided alongthe perimeter in the upper portion of can 113, proximate to the cap 109.The gasket 111 serves to electrically isolate cap 109 from can 113. Incertain embodiments, the bead 115 on which gasket 111 rests is coatedwith a polymer coating. The gasket may be any material that electricallyisolates the cap from the can. Preferably the material does notappreciably distort at high temperatures; one such material is nylon. Inother embodiments, it may be desirable to use a relatively hydrophobicmaterial to reduce the driving force that causes the alkalineelectrolyte to creep and ultimately leak from the cell at seams or otheravailable egress points. An example of a less wettable material ispolypropylene.

After the can or other containment vessel is filled with electrolyte,the vessel is sealed to isolate the electrodes and electrolyte from theenvironment as shown in FIG. 1B. The gasket is typically sealed by acrimping process. In certain embodiments, a sealing agent is used toprevent leakage. Examples of suitable sealing agents include bituminoussealing agents, tar and VERSAMID® available from Cognis of Cincinnati,Ohio.

In certain embodiments, the cell is configured to operate in anelectrolyte “starved” condition. Further, in certain embodiments, thenickel-zinc cells of this invention employ a starved electrolyte format.Such cells have relatively low quantities electrolyte in relation to theamount of active electrode material. They can be easily distinguishedfrom flooded cells, which have free liquid electrolyte in interiorregions of the cell. As discussed in U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/116,113, filed Apr. 26, 2005, titled “Nickel Zinc Battery Design,”hereby incorporated by reference, it may be desirable to operate a cellat starved conditions for a variety of reasons. A starved cell isgenerally understood to be one in which the total void volume within thecell electrode stack is not fully occupied by electrolyte. In a typicalexample, the void volume of a starved cell after electrolyte fill may beat least about 10% of the total void volume before fill.

The battery cells of this invention can have any of a number ofdifferent shapes and sizes. For example, cylindrical cells of thisinvention may have the diameter and length of conventional AAA cells, AAcells, A cells, C cells, etc. Custom cell designs are appropriate insome applications. In a specific embodiment, the cell size is a sub-Ccell size of diameter 22 mm and length 43 mm. Note that the presentinvention also may be employed in relatively small prismatic cellformats, as well as various larger format cells employed for variousnon-portable applications. Often the profile of a battery pack for,e.g., a power tool or lawn tool will dictate the size and shape of thebattery cells. This invention also pertains to battery packs includingone or more nickel zinc battery cells of this invention and appropriatecasing, contacts, and conductive lines to permit charge and discharge inan electric device.

Note that the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B has a polarityreversed of that in a conventional NiCd cell, in that the cap isnegative and the can is positive. In conventional power cells, thepolarity of the cell is such that the cap is positive and the can orvessel is negative. That is, the positive electrode of the cell assemblyis electrically connected with the cap and the negative electrode of thecell assembly is electrically connected with the can that retains thecell assembly. In a certain embodiments of this invention, includingthat depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the polarity of the cell is oppositeof that of a conventional cell. Thus, the negative electrode iselectrically connected with the cap and the positive electrode iselectrically connected to the can. It should be understood that incertain embodiments of this invention, the polarity remains the same asin conventional designs—with a positive cap.

Cell Can

The can is the vessel serving as the outer housing or casing of thefinal cell. In conventional nickel-cadmium cells, where the can is thenegative terminal, it is typically nickel-plated steel. As indicated, inthis invention the can may be either the negative or positive terminal.In embodiments in which the can is negative, the can material may be ofa composition similar to that employed in a conventional nickel cadmiumbattery, such as steel, as long as the material is coated with anothermaterial compatible with the potential of the zinc electrode. Forexample, a negative can may be coated with a material such as copper toprevent corrosion. In embodiments where the can is positive and the capnegative, the can may be a composition similar to that used inconvention nickel-cadmium cells, typically nickel-plated steel.

In some embodiments, the interior of the can may be coated with amaterial to aid hydrogen recombination. Any material that catalyzeshydrogen recombination may be used. An example of such a material issilver oxide.

Venting Cap

Although the cell is generally sealed from the environment, the cell maybe permitted to vent gases from the battery that are generated duringcharge and discharge. A typical nickel cadmium cell vents gas atpressures of approximately 200 Pounds per Square Inch (PSI). In someembodiments, a nickel zinc cell of this invention is designed to operateat this pressure and even higher (e.g., up to about 300 PSI) without theneed to vent. This may encourage recombination of any oxygen andhydrogen generated within the cell. In certain embodiments, the cell isconstructed to maintain an internal pressure of up to about 450 PSI andor even up to about 600 PSI. In other embodiments, a nickel zinc cell isdesigned to vent gas at relatively lower pressures. This may beappropriate when the design encourages controlled release of hydrogenand/or oxygen gases without their recombination within the cell.

FIG. 2 is a representation of a cap 201 and vent mechanism according toone embodiment of the invention. The vent mechanism is preferablydesigned to allow gas but not electrolyte to escape. Cap 201 includes adisk 208 that rests on the gasket, a vent 203 and an upper portion 205of cap 201. Disk 208 includes a hole 207 that permits gas to escape.Vent 203 covers hole 207 and is displaced by escaping gas. Vent 203 istypically rubber, though it may be made of any material that permits gasto escape and withstands high temperatures. A square vent has been foundto work well. Upper portion 205 is welded to disk 208 at weld spots 209and includes holes 211 to allow the gas to escape. The locations of weldspots 209 and 211 shown are purely illustrative and these may be at anysuitable location. In a preferred embodiment, the vent mechanismincludes a vent cover 213 made of a hydrophobic gas permeable membrane.Examples of vent cover materials include microporous polypropylene,microporous polyethylene, microporous PTFE, microporous FEP, microporousfluoropolymers, and mixtures and co-polymers thereof (see e.g., U.S.Pat. No. 6,949,310 (J. Phillips), “Leak Proof Pressure Relief Valve forSecondary Batteries,” issued Sep. 27, 2005, which is incorporated hereinby reference for all purposes). The material should be able to withstandhigh temperatures.

In certain embodiments, hydrophobic gas permeable membranes are used inconjunction with a tortuous gas escape route. Other battery ventingmechanisms are known in the art and are suitable for use with thisinvention. In certain embodiments, a cell's materials of constructionare chosen to provide regions of hydrogen egress. For example, the cellscap or gasket may be made from a hydrogen permeable polymeric material.In one specific example, the outer annular region of the cell's cap ismade from a hydrogen permeable material such as an acrylic plastic orone or more of the polymers listed above. In such embodiments, only theactual terminal (provided in the center of the cap and surrounded by thehydrogen permeable material) need be electrically conductive.

Some details of the structure of a vent cap and current collector disk,as well as the carrier substrate itself, are found in the followingpatent applications which are incorporated herein by reference for allpurposes: PCT/US2006/015807 filed Apr. 25, 2006 and PCT/US2004/026859filed Aug. 17, 2004 (publication WO 2005/020353 A3).

The Electrodes-Separator Sandwich Structure

FIG. 3 illustrates the various layers in the negativeelectrode-separator-positive electrode sandwich structure before it iswound. The separator 305 mechanically separates the negative electrode(components 301 and 303) from the positive electrode (components 307 and309) while allowing ionic exchange to occur between the electrodes andthe electrolyte. The negative electrode includes electrochemicallyactive layers 301 and a current collector 303. The electrochemicallyactive layers 301 of the zinc negative electrode typically include zincoxide and/or zinc metal as the electrochemically active material. Asexplained in the Appendix, the layer 301 may also include otheradditives or electrochemically active compounds such as calcium zincate,bismuth oxide, aluminum oxide, indium oxide, hydroxyethyl cellulose, anda dispersant.

The current collector 303 should be electrochemically compatible withthe negative electrode materials 301. As described above, the currentcollector may have the structure of a perforated metal sheet, anexpanded metal, a metal foam, or a patterned continuous metal sheet.

Opposite from the negative electrode on the other side of the separator305 is the positive electrode. The positive electrode also includeselectrochemically active layers 307 and a current collector 309. Thelayers 307 of the positive electrode may include nickel hydroxide,nickel oxide, and/or nickel oxyhydroxide as electrochemically activematerials. Additives may include zinc oxide and cobalt oxide or cobaltmetal. The current collector 309 may be a nickel metal foam matrix ornickel metal sheets. Note that if a nickel foam matrix is used, thenlayers 307 would be absorbed in the matrix.

The Separator

A separator serves to mechanically isolate the positive and negativeelectrodes, while allowing ionic exchange to occur between theelectrodes and the electrolyte. The separator also blocks zinc dendriteformation. Dendrites are crystalline structures having a skeletal ortree-like growth pattern (“dendritic growth”) in metal deposition. Inpractice, dendrites form in the conductive media of a power cell duringthe lifetime of the cell and effectively bridge the negative andpositive electrodes causing shorts and subsequent loss of batteryfunction.

Typically, a separator will have small pores. In certain embodimentsdescribed herein, the separator includes multiple layers. The poresand/or laminate structure may provide a tortuous path for zinc dendritesand therefore effectively bar penetration and shorting by dendrites.Preferably, the porous separator has a tortuosity of between about 1.5and 10, more preferably between about 2 and 5. The average pore diameteris preferably at most about 0.2 microns, and more preferably betweenabout 0.02 and 0.1 microns. Also, the pore size is preferably fairlyuniform in the separator. In a specific embodiment, the separator has aporosity of between about 35 and 55% with one preferred material having45% porosity and a pore size of 0.1 micron.

In a preferred embodiment, the separator comprises at least two layers(and preferably exactly two layers)—a barrier layer to block zincpenetration and a wetting layer to keep the cell wet with electrolyte,allowing ionic exchange. This is generally not the case with nickelcadmium cells, which employ only a single separator material betweenadjacent electrode layers.

Performance of the cell may be aided by keeping the positive electrodeas wet as possible and the negative electrode relatively dry. Thus, insome embodiments, the barrier layer is located adjacent to the negativeelectrode and the wetting layer is located adjacent to the positiveelectrode. This arrangement improves performance of the cell bymaintaining electrolyte in intimate contact with the positive electrode.

In other embodiments, the wetting layer is placed adjacent to thenegative electrode and the barrier layer is placed adjacent to thepositive electrode. This arrangement aids recombination of oxygen at thenegative electrode by facilitating oxygen transport to the negativeelectrode via the electrolyte.

The barrier layer is typically a microporous membrane. Any microporousmembrane that is ionically conductive may be used. Often a polyolefinhaving a porosity of between about 30 and 80 percent, and an averagepore size of between about 0.005 and 0.3 micron will be suitable. In apreferred embodiment, the barrier layer is a microporous polypropylene.The barrier layer is typically about 0.5-4 mils thick, more preferablybetween about 1.5 and 4 mils thick.

The wetting layer may be made of any suitable wettable separatormaterial. Typically the wetting layer has a relatively high porositye.g., between about 50 and 85% porosity. Examples include polyamidematerials such as nylon-based as well as wettable polyethylene andpolypropylene materials. In certain embodiments, the wetting layer isbetween about 1 and 10 mils thick, more preferably between about 3 and 6mils thick. Examples of separate materials that may be employed as thewetting material include NKK VL100 (NKK Corporation, Tokyo, Japan),Freudenberg FS2213E, Scimat 650/45 (SciMAT Limited, Swindon, UK), andVilene FV4365.

Other separator materials known in the art may be employed. Asindicated, nylon-based materials and microporous polyolefins (e.g.,polyethylenes and polypropylenes) are very often suitable.

In an alternate embodiment, a single separator material may be used toblock zinc penetration and to keep the cell wet with electrolyte. Thesingle separator material may be a separator used in a conventionallithium ion cell but modified for use in the nickel zinc cell. Forexample, the lithium ion-type separator may be impregnated with a gel toimprove its wettability characteristics. One such example is thepolyethylene Teklon material available from Entek Membranes LLC,Lebanon, Oreg. This material is 20 microns thick with approximately 40%porosity. Gel may be provided to the separator directly or indirectlyby, for example, be adding it to the zinc electrode.

In certain embodiments, the separator may be treated with a surfactantprior to incorporating into the anode/cathode structure. This serves toenhance the wettability and promote uniform current density. In aspecific example, the separator is first treated with a solution ofabout 0.5-5% of a surfactant such as a Triton surfactant (e.g., X100)available from Dow Chemical Corporation of Midland Mich. The time ofcontact with the surfactant as well as the drying time, choice ofsurfactant, and concentration of surfactant are all factors that canimpact the effectiveness of the treatment. Soaking for several hours ina dilute aqueous solution and subsequent air-drying can produceexcellent results; additionally the use of other solvents such asmethanol has been found to accelerate the uptake of the surfactant.

Another approach to rendering the micro-porous polypropylene wettable isto radiation graft specific hydrophyllic chemical groups onto thesurface of the polymer. One such approach is used by Shanghai ShilongHi-Tech Co. Ltd, Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academyof Sciences. In this case the activation process is achieved usingcobalt 60 irradiators.

Another consideration in the electrode/separator design is whether toprovide the separator as simple sheets of approximately the same widthas the electrode and currently collector sheet (e.g., FIG. 2) or toencase one or both electrodes in separator layers. In the latterexample, the separator serves as a “bag” for one of the electrodesheets, effectively encapsulating an electrode layer. In someembodiments, encapsulating the negative electrode in a separator layerwill aid in preventing dendrite formation. In other embodiments,however, use of a barrier layer sheet without encapsulating an electrodeis sufficient protection against dendrite penetration.

The Positive Electrode

The positive electrode generally includes an electrochemically activenickel oxide or hydroxide and one or more additives to facilitatemanufacturing, electron transport, wetting, mechanical properties, etc.For example, a positive electrode formulation may include at least anelectrochemically active nickel oxide or hydroxide (e.g., nickelhydroxide (Ni(OH)₂)), zinc oxide, cobalt oxide (CoO), cobalt metal,nickel metal, and a flow control agent such as carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC). Note that the metallic nickel and cobalt may be chemically pureor alloys. In certain embodiments, the positive electrode has acomposition similar to that employed to fabricate the nickel electrodein a conventional nickel cadmium battery, although there may be someimportant optimizations for the nickel zinc battery system.

A nickel foam matrix is preferably used to support the electroactivenickel (e.g., Ni(OH)₂) electrode material. In one example, commerciallyavailable nickel foam by Inco, Ltd. may be used. The diffusion path tothe Ni(OH)₂ (or other electrochemically active material) through thenickel foam should be short for applications requiring high dischargerates. At high rates, the time it takes ions to penetrate the nickelfoam is important. The width of the positive electrode, comprisingnickel foam filled with the Ni(OH)₂ (or other electrochemically activematerial) and other electrode materials, should be optimized so that thenickel foam provides sufficient void space for the Ni(OH)₂ materialwhile keeping the diffusion path of the ions to the Ni(OH)₂ through thefoam short. The foam substrate thickness may be may be between 15 and 60mils. In a preferred embodiment, the thickness of the positiveelectrode, comprising nickel foam filled with the electrochemicallyactive and other electrode materials, ranges from about 16-24 mils. In aparticularly preferred embodiment, positive electrode is about 20 milsthick.

The density of the nickel foam should be optimized to ensure that theelectrochemically active material uniformly penetrates the void space ofthe foam. In a preferred embodiment, nickel foam of density ranging fromabout 300-500 g/m² is used. An even more preferred range is betweenabout 350-500 g/m². In a particularly preferred embodiment nickel foamof density of about 350 g/m² is used. As the width of the electrodelayer is decreased, the foam may be made less dense to ensure there issufficient void space. In a preferred embodiment, a nickel foam densityof about 350 g/m² and thickness ranging from about 16-18 mils is used.

Negative Electrode Composition

Generally the negative electrode includes one or more electroactivesources of zinc or zincate ions optionally in combination with one ormore additional materials such as conductivity enhancing materials,corrosion inhibitors, wetting agents, etc. as described below. When theelectrode is fabricated it will be characterized by certain physical,chemical, and morphological features such as coulombic capacity,chemical composition of the active zinc, porosity, tortuosity, etc.

In certain embodiments, the electrochemically active zinc source maycomprise one or more of the following components: zinc oxide, calciumzincate, zinc metal, and various zinc alloys. Any of these materials maybe provided during fabrication and/or be created during normal cellcycling. As a particular example, consider calcium zincate, which may beproduced from a paste or slurry containing, e.g., calcium oxide and zincoxide. If a zinc alloy is employed, it may in certain embodimentsinclude bismuth and/or indium. In certain embodiments, it may include upto about 20 parts per million lead. A commercially available source ofzinc alloy meeting this composition requirement is PG101 provided byNoranda Corporation of Canada.

The zinc active material may exist in the form of a powder, a granularcomposition, etc. Preferably, each of the components employed in a zincelectrode paste formulation has a relatively small particle size. Thisis to reduce the likelihood that a particle may penetrate or otherwisedamage the separator between the positive and negative electrodes.

In addition to the electrochemically active zinc component(s), thenegative electrode may include one or more additional materials thatfacilitate or otherwise impact certain processes within the electrodesuch as ion transport, electron transport (e.g., enhance conductivity),wetting, porosity, structural integrity (e.g., binding), gassing, activematerial solubility, barrier properties (e.g., reducing the amount ofzinc leaving the electrode), corrosion inhibition etc. For example, insome embodiments, the negative electrode includes an oxide such asbismuth oxide, indium oxide, and/or aluminum oxide. Bismuth oxide andindium oxide may interact with zinc and reduce gassing at the electrode.Bismuth oxide may be provided in a concentration of between about 1 and10% by weight of a dry negative electrode formulation. It may facilitaterecombination of hydrogen and oxygen. Indium oxide may be present in aconcentration of between about 0.05 and 1% by weight of a dry negativeelectrode formulation. Aluminum oxide may be provided in a concentrationof between about 1 and 5% by weight of a dry negative electrodeformulation.

In certain embodiments, one or more additives may be included to improvecorrosion resistance of the zinc electroactive material and therebyfacilitate long shelf life. The shelf life can be critical to thecommercial success or failure of a battery cell. Recognizing thatbatteries are intrinsically chemically unstable devices, steps should betaken to preserve battery components, including the negative electrode,in their chemically useful form. When electrode materials corrode orotherwise degrade to a significant extent over weeks or months withoutuse, their value becomes limited by short shelf life. Examples ofcorrosion inhibiting additives include cations of indium, bismuth, lead,tin, calcium, etc. Generally, these may be present in a negativeelectrode in the form of salts (e.g., sulfates, fluorides, etc.) atconcentrations of up to about 25% by weight of a dry negative electrodeformulation, typically up to about 10% by weight. In certainembodiments, organic materials may be included in the electrodeformulation to inhibit corrosion of the zinc electroactive material.Examples of such inhibitors include surfactants such as commerciallyavailable Triton and RS600 surfactants.

Specific examples of anions that may be included to reduce thesolubility of zinc in the electrolyte include phosphate, fluoride,borate, zincate, silicate, stearate, etc. Generally, these anions may bepresent in a negative electrode in concentrations of up to about 5% byweight of a dry negative electrode formulation. It is believed that atleast certain of these anions go into solution during cell cycling andthere they reduce the solubility of zinc. Examples of electrodeformulations including these materials are included in the followingpatents and patent applications, each of which is incorporated herein byreference for all purposes: U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,433, issued Sep. 28,2004, titled, “Negative Electrode Formulation for a Low Toxicity ZincElectrode Having Additives with Redox Potentials Negative to ZincPotential,” by Jeffrey Phillips; U.S. Pat. No. 6,835,499, issued Dec.28, 2004, titled, “Negative Electrode Formulation for a Low ToxicityZinc Electrode Having Additives with Redox Potentials Positive to ZincPotential,” by Jeffrey Phillips; U.S. Pat. No. 6,818,350, issued Nov.16, 2004, titled, “Alkaline Cells Having Low Toxicity Rechargeable ZincElectrodes,” by Jeffrey Phillips; and PCT/NZ02/00036 (publication no. WO02/075830) filed Mar. 15, 2002 by Hall et al.

Examples of materials that may be added to the negative electrode toimprove wetting include titanium oxides, alumina, silica, alumina andsilica together, etc. Generally, these materials are provided inconcentrations of up to about 10% by weight of a dry negative electrodeformulation. A further discussion of such materials may be found in U.S.Pat. No. 6,811,926, issued Nov. 2, 2004, titled, “Formulation of ZincNegative Electrode for Rechargeable Cells Having an AlkalineElectrolyte,” by Jeffrey Phillips, which is incorporated herein byreference for all purposes.

Examples of materials that may be added to the negative electrode toimprove electronic conductance include various electrode compatiblematerials having high intrinsic electronic conductivity. Examplesinclude titanium oxides, etc. Generally, these materials are provided inconcentrations of up to about 10% by weight of a dry negative electrodeformulation. The exact concentration will depend, of course, on theproperties of chosen additive.

Various organic materials may be added to the negative electrode for thepurpose of binding, dispersion, and/or as surrogates for separators.Examples include hydroxylethyl cellulose (HEC), carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC), the free acid form of carboxymethyl cellulose (HCMC),polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polystyrene sulfonate (PSS), polyvinylalcohol (PVA), nopcosperse dispersants (available from San Nopco Ltd. ofKyoto Japan), etc. In a specific example, PSS and PVA are used to coatthe negative electrode to provide wetting or other separator-likeproperties. In certain embodiments, when using a separator-like coatingfor the electrode, the zinc-nickel cell may employ a single layerseparator and in some embodiments, no independent separator at all. Incertain embodiments, polymeric materials such as PSS and PVA may bemixed with the paste formation (as opposed to coating) for the purposeof burying sharp or large particles in the electrode that mightotherwise pose a danger to the separator.

Various negative electrode compositions within the scope of thisinvention are described in the following documents, each of which isincorporated herein by reference: PCT Publication No. WO 02/39517 (J.Phillips), PCT Publication No. WO 02/039520 (J. Phillips), PCTPublication No. WO 02/39521, PCT Publication No. WO 02/039534 and (J.Phillips), US Patent Publication No. 2002182501. Negative electrodeadditives in the above references include, for example, silica andfluorides of various alkaline earth metals, transition metals, heavymetals, and noble metals.

Finally, it should be noted that while a number of materials may beadded to the negative electrode to impart particular properties, some ofthose materials or properties may be introduced via battery componentsother than the negative electrode. For example, certain materials forreducing the solubility of zinc in the electrolyte may be provided inthe electrolyte or separator (with or without also being provided to thenegative electrode). Examples of such materials include phosphate,fluoride, borate, zincate, silicate, stearate. Other electrode additivesidentified above that might be provided in the electrolyte and/orseparator include surfactants, ions of indium, bismuth, lead, tin,calcium, etc.

Negative Electronic Conduction Pathway

The negative electronic pathway is comprised of the battery componentsthat carry electrons between the negative electrode and the negativeterminal during charge and discharge. One of these components is acarrier or current collection substrate on which the negative electrodeis formed and supported. This is a subject of the present invention. Ina cylindrical cell design, the substrate is typically provided within aspirally wound sandwich structure that includes the negative electrodematerial, a cell separator and the positive electrode components(including the electrode itself and a positive current collectionsubstrate). As indicated, this structure is often referred to as ajellyroll. Other components of the negative electronic pathway aredepicted in FIG. 1A. Typically, though not necessarily, these include acurrent collector disk (often provided with a conductive tab) and anegative cell terminal. In the depicted embodiment, the disk is directlyconnected to the negative current collector substrate and the cellterminal is directly attached to the current collector disk (often viathe conductive tab). In a cylindrical cell design, the negative cellterminal is usually either a cap or a can.

Each of the components of the negative electronic conduction pathway maybe characterized by its composition, electrical properties, chemicalproperties, geometric and structural properties, etc. For example, incertain embodiments, each element of the pathway has the samecomposition (e.g., zinc coated copper or tin/zinc coated copper). Inother embodiments, at least two of the elements have differentcompositions.

The Current Collector

An element of the conductive pathway that is the subject of thisapplication is the carrier or substrate for the negative electrode,which also serves as a current collector. The current collectionsubstrate can be provided in various structural forms includingperforated metal sheets, expanded metals, metal foams, etc. In aspecific embodiment, the substrate is a perforated sheet or an expandedmetal made from a copper or brass based material. In certainembodiments, the substrate is a perforated sheet having a thicknessbetween about 2 and 5 mils. In certain embodiments, the substrate is anexpanded metal having a thickness between about 2 and 20 mils. In otherembodiments, the substrate is a metal foam having a thickness of betweenabout 15 and 60 mils. In a specific embodiment, the carrier is about 3-4mils thick perforated copper. A specific range for the thickness of thenegative electrode, including the carrier metal and negative electrodematerial is about 10 to 24 mils.

Regardless of the type of copper or brass based current collectoremployed, the resulting current collector structure may have manydifferent physical structures. In certain embodiments, it is provided asa continuous smooth foil. In certain embodiments, it may be perforated.It may be perforated with circles or ovals or rectangles or othergeometric shapes. In some cases, its surface may be patterned orroughened to allow for better physical contact with theelectrochemically active layer. In certain embodiments, the currentcollector may be an expanded metal having a thickness of, e.g., about2-20 mils. In other embodiments, the current collector may be a foammaterial having a thickness of, e.g., between about 15 and 60 mils.

Among the criteria to consider when choosing a material and structurefor the substrate are electrochemically compatible with the negativeelectrode materials, cost, ease of coating (with the negative electrodematerial), suppression of hydrogen evolution, and ability to facilitateelectron transport between the electrochemically active electrodematerial and the current collector. The current collector of the presentinvention meets these criteria and, in some cases, performs better thancurrent collectors with other designs.

The current collector utilizes a copper or brass based substrate,covered with at least one intermetallic compound and alloys of tin andcopper and in some cases, tin, copper, and zinc. The alloys andintermetallic compounds are formed from baking a substrate plated withtin or both tin and zinc. During baking, copper from the base substratediffuses into the plated metal and the diffused copper will have anelectrochemical reaction with zinc in the negative paste. Therefore,this diffusion process will promote corrosion (i.e., more gassing) anddegrade the battery performance. Furthermore, the copper atoms alsoreact with tin atoms to form one or more intermetallic compounds layerat the interface during baking process. The type of compound formeddepends on the plating thickness. For 20 μIn thickness, there is nointermetallic compound formed. For the 40-80 μIn plating thickness, theintermetallic compound formed is Cu₃Sn. For 200 μIn plating thickness,the intermetallic compounds formed are Cu₃Sn (˜5-15%) and Cu₆Sn₅(˜85-95%). Formation of intermetallic compound Cu₃Sn is preferred andthe formation of compound Cu₆Sn₅ should be avoided because of theirphysical property and plating layer structure differences.

It was found that intermetallic compounds Cu₃Sn and/or Cu₆Sn₅, may beformed depending on thickness plated. In one case, tin plated coppersubstrates were baked for about 45 minutes at 260° C., imaged with ascanning electron microscope (SEM) and analyzed with Energy DispersiveX-ray (EDX). The SEM images of baked substrates at various thicknessesare depicted in FIG. 4. At plated thickness of about 20 μIn as shown inFIG. 4A, a tin/copper alloy (403) was formed. The base substrate isshown as layer 401 and is all copper. As shown in FIG. 4B, at platedthickness of about 60 μIn, tin/copper alloy (403) and intermetalliccompound Cu₃Sn (405) were formed. As shown in FIG. 4C, at platedthickness of about 200 μIn, only very little Cu₃Sn (layer 405) wasfound, the rest were Cu₆Sn₅ (layer 407) and pure tin (layer 409).

As used herein, intermetallic compounds are solid phases containing twoor more metallic elements with a certain atomic ratio or a very smallrange of composition for one component, with optionally one or more nonmetallic elements, whose structure is distinct from that of any of theconstituents. An intermetallic compound may or may not have metallicproperties. For example, some intermetallic compounds, e.g., Cu₆Sn₅, arebrittle and do not bend. Alloys, on the other hand, are homogeneousmixtures of two or more elements without any atomic ratio limitation forany component, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resultingmaterial has metallic properties.

When tin and zinc are electroplated and baked, the similar structures ofplating layer were observed comparing with tin plating for differentplating thicknesses, i.e., for 20 μIn thickness, there is no compoundformed. For the 40-80 μIn plating thickness, compound formed is Cu₃Sn.For 200 μIn plating thickness, the compounds formed comprise Cu₃Sn(˜5-15%) and Cu₆Sn₅ (˜85-95%). Zinc may dissolve in the two types ofcompounds to a certain degree.

The intermetallic compounds Cu₃Sn and Cu₆Sn₅ have different properties.The intermetallic compound Cu₆Sn₅ forms large, irregular shapes. Cu₆Sn₅is also brittle and less conductive than Cu₃Sn. As mentioned before, oneof the substrate design considerations is its ability to withstandmanufacturing operations. In one test, Cu₆Sn₅ became cracked duringsubsequent electrode winding process. The cracked Cu₆Sn₅ damaged thecoating layer and allowed more corrosion reactions at the base substratesurface. The material, if separated from the substrate duringmanufacturing, may become a source of contaminants in subsequentoperations. The cracked Cu₆Sn₅ may lead to more hydrogen evolutionduring battery operations. As discussed above, even with a venting cap,hydrogen evolution is undesirable. The reduced conductivity wouldnegatively affect cell performance. Thus, the formation of Cu₆Sn₅ is tobe avoided.

To avoid the formation of Cu₆Sn₅, the plated thickness must be small. Asdiscussed above, the formation of intermetallic compounds and alloys areaffected by the plated thickness before baking. If the plated thicknessis too thin however, the substrate may not be adequately protectedagainst corrosion. It was found that a thickness of about 40-80 μIn isadequate for corrosion resistance concerns and yet eliminates theformation of Cu₆Sn₅ layers. Preferably, a thickness of about 60 μIn forplated tin and about 55 μIn for plated tin and zinc may be used.

The plated substrate surface may have a matte finish. The matte finishhelps the electrochemically active material adhere to the surface of theplated substrate. Additionally, brightener additives typically used incommercial plating baths may be incorporated into the plated layer andcan degrade the plated layer. Using a plating bath without thebrightener additives ensures a matt finish without degradation.

Manufacturing Process

Current collectors of the present invention may be made with a processshown as a flow diagram in FIG. 5, which shows a portion of the nickelzinc cell manufacture process up to the assembly of theelectrodes-separator sandwich structure. In step 502, a substrateperforated strip is provided. The substrate strip may be made of copperor an alloy of copper such as brass. The substrate may also containsmall amounts of one or more elements, such as bismuth, indium, or lead.In one example, the substrate may be 99.7% copper foil with a thicknessof about 4 mils. The length and width of the substrate may differdepending on the size of battery (height of the cell determines width ofthe substrate) and the manufacturing process (size of the various bathsdetermines the length of the substrate). To test the substrates, 6 inchlong strips were used. In another case, 15 inch long strips are used. Afull scale manufacturing process may use longer strips, e.g., 12,000inches, or even longer. For manufacturing a sub-C cell, the width may be1.325 inches. Larger battery cell would require wider strips. In somecases, even wider strips two times to ten times the width used in onecell may be used if it is cut longitudinally after electroplating intoappropriately sized pieces.

The perforated strip degreased remove grease and dirt (504). Denaturedalcohol, acetone, or other organic solvent may be applied to theperforated strip for 1 to 15 minutes. In some cases, this step may notoccur, for example, if the strips were never handled and thus has nogrease or dirt. However, often the manufacturing process of the stripsproduces copper or brass strips with machine grease, which must beremoved. After degreasing the strip, it may be optionally rinsed withdeionized (DI) water for 10-30 seconds in operation 506.

The perforated strip is electrolytic cleaned in an alkaline soaksolution (508). During electrolytic cleaning, a current is applied downthe length of the substrate while it soaks in the alkaline solution. Theelectrolytic cleaning ensures that the surface to be plated is pure,uniform and smooth. For a 15 inch long strip, a current of 1-3 amps or 2amps may be applied. For longer strips, the current should be higher.The alkaline soak solution may have a pH of about 10-13. The solutionmay include an alkaline hydroxide, an alkaline carbonate, and analkaline phosphate. For example, the solution may include sodiumhydroxide, sodium carbonate, and sodium phosphate or sodium acetate. Thesolution may also include potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, andpotassium phosphate, or a combination sodium and potassium hydroxide,carbonate, and phosphate. In one example, the sodium hydroxide isprovided at a concentration about 30-60 grams per liter. The sodiumcarbonate is provided at a concentration of about 40-90 grams per liter.The sodium phosphate is provided at a concentration of 50-90 grams perliter. After the electrolytic cleaning, the perforated strip may berinsed with DI water in operation 510 for 10-30 seconds.

To further prepare the surface for electroplating, the perforated stripmay be immersed in an activation solution (512). The activation solutionmay be a strong acid having a pH of about 1. One example of such acid issulfuric acid at an acid concentration of about 4-20%. Other strongacids may be used, e.g., hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and the like.For example, the perforated strip may be immersed in sulfuric acidhaving an acid concentration of about 4% for about 5-10 minutes. In someembodiments, a weaker acid may be used with a higher pH, for example, apH of about 3 or 4. For example, hydrobromic acids may be used in somecases. The use of weak acid may require a longer immersion time. Theimmersion in activation solution renders the surface more active, andsubsequently electroplated layers bond better. The substrate surfacebecomes less reflective or shiny and may appear less yellow or red.After the activating, the perforated strip may be rinsed with DI waterin operation 514 for 10-30 seconds.

The substrate may be electroplated with tin or both tin and zinc in aplating bath (516). For tin plating, the electroplating bath includestin ion or zinc ion sources, a current carrier source, and nobrightening agent. As discussed above, a brightening agent may becomeincorporated into the electroplated layer and cause degradation. Also abright surface may not adhere well to electrochemically active layers.The bath may also include an oxidation retardant and/or an anti-treeingagent. Treeing is a phenomenon where the electroplated layer grows intoexcessive irregular shapes, e.g., dendrites. Treeing may reduce the lifeof a cell because it may create undesired conductive pathways or causenon-uniform depletion of the electrochemically active materials. Theirregular shapes may grow during battery operation and puncture theseparator to cause a short circuit between the negative and positiveelectrodes by forming an undesired conductive pathway. The irregularshape may also increase concentration of certain particles, e.g., zinc,in certain localized areas and cause non-uniform depletion of theelectrochemically active materials.

In one embodiment, the tin ion source is stannous sulfate, the currentcarrier source is an acid, the oxidation retardant is a sulfonic acid,and the anti-treeing agent is naphthol, glue, gelatin, or cresol. Othersources of tin ions may be used, e.g., stannous chloride (SnCl₂) orstannous methanesulfonate (Sn(CH₃SO₃)₂). The current carrier source maybe any acid that can provide sufficient conductivity for the platingbath. For example, the current carrier source may be sulfuric acid,acetic acid, boric acid, sodium sulfate, or sulfamic acid at aconcentration of about 50-100 grams per liter. The oxidation retardantserves to retard the oxidation of stannous tin and may be cresolsulfonicor phenolsulfonic acids. The concentration may be about 50-100 grams perliter. Anti-treeing agents may be naphthol, dihydroxydiphenylsulfone,glue, gelatin, or cresol. The naphthol or dihydroxydiphenylsulfone maybe used at a concentration of 0.5-10 grams per liter. Glue, gelatin, orcresol may be used at a concentration of 0.2-12 grams per liter.

In another embodiment where both tin and zinc are deposited, the platingbath also includes a zinc ion source. For example, the zinc ion sourcemay be zinc chloride (ZnCl₂), zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄) or zinc pyrophosphate(Zn₂P₂O₇) at a concentration about 10-100 grams per liter. Other zincion source may be appropriately substituted.

A layer of metal approximately 40-80 μIn thick may be electroplated ontothe substrate. During the electroplating, the whole substrate or a partof the substrate may be immersed in the bath. In a continuousmanufacturing environment, portions of the substrate may bealternatively immersed in the electroplating bath. In one embodiment,about 60 μIn of tin is electroplated onto the substrate on each side. Inanother embodiment, about 55 μIn of tin and zinc in a ratio of 5 Sn:1 Znis electroplated onto the substrate on each side. As discussed herein,the thickness of electroplating determines the intermetallic compoundsformed during the baking operation. The electroplated layer covering thesubstrate may be tin or a tin alloy or intermetallic compound. Theelectroplated layer may also include some copper as part of the tinalloy. The composition of the electroplated layer may be in agradient—the portion closest to the base substrate containing a higherpercentage of copper and the portion closest to the electroplating bathcontaining a lower percentage or no copper.

The current density applied to the substrate is unexpectedly found toaffect the substrate's test results. Even when the same thickness iselectroplated, the inventor found a current density that is especiallybeneficial to reducing the substrate gassing rate. The current densitymay be 40-80 A/m² for a period of about 4-6 minutes for both tin andtin-zinc platings. In certain embodiments, current density may be 40-70,or about 60 A/m² for about 4-6 minutes for both tin and tin-zincplatings.

The plating process is specifically operated at room temperature and thefiltering and circulation of the plating bath may be necessary duringmanufacturing the plated strips continuously.

The anode used during electroplating may be pieces of elemental metal.For plating tin and zinc, an alloy of tin and zinc or individual piecesof tin and zinc may be used. The material electroplated may be about75-100% weight tin and about 0-25% weight zinc. One skilled in the artwould be able to modify these electroplating bath compositions andplating conditions to arrive at a desired ratio of plated tin and zinc.A ratio of about 4 Sn:1 Zn to 7 Sn:1 Zn, or 10 Sn to 2 Zn, may beelectroplated to manufacture a current collector in accordance with thepresent invention.

After electroplating, the plated substrate may be rinsed with DI water,hot water, and dried with heat (518). The heat drying is not intended tocause any structural or morphology change, but merely to thoroughlyevaporate all the rinse from the substrate. Thus, a small amount of heatmay be applied.

Electrochemically active material may be applied to the plated substratestrip (520). The composition of these electrochemically active materialsis discussed previously. Usually in the form of a paste, these materialsare applied to one or both sides of the substrate strip. Mechanicaldevices may be used to ensure a smooth application, such as a roller.The perforated strip may be baked by maintaining a higher than ambienttemperature for a period of time (522). The baking evolves polymers fromthe electrochemically active material and promotes diffusion of theelectroplated substrate and metal, which forms intermetallic compounds.Temperature of 200-350° C. may be maintained for 30 minutes to about 2hours. In one embodiment, temperature of about 260° C. may be maintainedfor about 45 minutes.

After the negative electrode materials are baked, they may be assembledinto the electrodes-separator sandwich structure (524) discussed above.The negative electrode material, separator, and the positive electrodeare layered on top of one another to form this sandwich structure. Theentire structure may be cut into appropriately sized pieces to rollingand further cell manufacturing. In some embodiments, the cuttingoperation may occur before baking the strips, so that exposed copper orbrass edges are also baked. In other embodiments, the substrates are cutafter baking to allow better attachment of other cell structures to theedges of the substrates and prior to assembling the sandwich.

Well known process operations have not been described in detail in ordernot to unnecessarily obscure the present invention. More details of amethod of manufacturing a zinc negative electrode is disclosed in U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/921,062 (J. Phillips), filed Aug. 17,2004, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.While this invention has been described using nickel zinc batteries asexamples, the invention is not so limited. Current collectors inaccordance with the present invention may be employed in any of a numberof cells employing zinc electrodes. These include, e.g., zinc air cells,silver zinc cells, and zinc manganese dioxide cells.

Gassing Test Results

Gassing tests were performed for substrates electroplated under variousconditions to find the design and manufacturing conditions yieldinglowest gassing rates. In one test, substrates plated to variousthicknesses were compared. The gassing rates were measured by combiningthe plated and baked substrate, electrolyte, and electrochemicallyactive material into an air tight bottle and measuring the amount of gasgenerated over three days. The amount of material added to the testbottle was determined to mimic the relative compositions in a batterycell. Thus the gassing rate results would correlate to that in amanufactured battery cell.

FIG. 6 is a plot of the test data. The gassing rate was measured overthree days and averaged to find an average milliliter per 24 hour rateand plotted against the thickness of electroplated layer. Thethicknesses are calculated based on the current applied and time overthe sample area and thus is a theoretical value not including anyparasitic reactions. These calculated thicknesses were correlated tomeasured thicknesses using Sheffield Platers and found to be close tomeasured thicknesses. For example, for a theoretical thickness of 58.7μIn, 26 measurements had a mean of 53.1 with a standard deviation of9.81 μIn. The thickness measurements show that the theoretical(calculated) thicknesses correlate well with the measured values.

The plot of the gassing rates showed that at very low thicknesses, thegassing rate was high. It is believed that a thin electroplated layermay not uniformly coat the entire substrate and leave exposed substratesto react and evolve hydrogen. However, at about 1.5 μm, or about 60 μIn,the gassing rate was at its lowest for tin plating; and at about 1.4 μm,or about 55 μIn, the gassing rate was at its lowest for a tin-zincplating in a ratio of 5Sn:1Zn. The gassing rate slowly increases as moremetal is electroplated. The increased gassing rate is consistent withthe increased formation of intermetallic layer Cu₆Sn₅. It is believedthat a thick layer of Cu₆Sn₅ may crack to expose the substrate to evolvehydrogen. Alternatively, the intermetallic compound Cu₆Sn₅ maycontribute directly to hydrogen evolution.

1. A method to manufacture a zinc electrode substrate for a nickel zincbattery cell, the method comprising: (a) providing a strip of substratematerial, said substrate material comprising copper; (b) electroplatingmetal onto the strip in an electroplating bath comprising a tin ionsource; and (c) baking the plated substrate by maintaining a higher thanambient temperature for a period of time to form a layer comprisingcopper-tin intermetallic compounds, such that said copper-tinintermetallic compounds comprise at least about 90% Cu₃Sn and compriseCu₆Sn₅ in an amount of less than about 10% of the formed intermetalliccompounds.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising electrolyticallycleaning the strip prior to the electroplating.
 3. The method of claim1, wherein 40-80 μIn of metal is electroplated in (b).
 4. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising pasting a layer of zinc oxide basedelectrochemically active material onto the substrate after theelectroplating.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal deposited in(b) further comprises zinc from a zinc ion source in the electrolytebath.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal deposited in (b)comprises about 75-100% weight tin and about 0-25% weight zinc.
 7. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the substrate material further compriseszinc, wherein the copper and zinc form a brass alloy.
 8. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the electrolytic cleaning is performed for a period ofabout 5-10 minutes in an alkaline soak solution.
 9. The method of claim8, wherein the alkaline soak solution has a pH of about 10-13.
 10. Themethod of claim 9, wherein the alkaline soak solution comprises acomponent selected from the group consisting of an alkaline hydroxide,an alkaline carbonate, and an alkaline phosphate.
 11. The method ofclaim 2, further comprising activating the strip, after electrolyticcleaning and before electroplating, wherein the activation operationcomprises immersing the strip in an activation solution comprising anacid.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the activation solution has apH of about 0.2-3.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the activationsolution comprises sulfuric acid at an acid concentration of 4-20%. 14.The method of claim 1, wherein the electroplating operation occurs at acurrent density of about 40-80 A/m² for a period of about 4-6 minutes.15. The method of claim 1, wherein the electroplating bath comprises acurrent carrier source and no brightening agent.
 16. The method of claim1, wherein the electroplating bath has a pH of about 0.1-3.
 17. Themethod of claim 16, wherein the electroplating bath further comprises anoxidation retardant and an anti-treeing agent.
 18. The method of claim1, wherein the baking operation comprises maintaining the substrate at atemperature of about 200-350° C. for a period of about 30 minutes to 2hours.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein (b) comprises electroplatingmetal consisting essentially of (i) tin or (ii) tin and zinc.